Simulation Of Routing Protocols Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Simulation Of Routing Protocols - Essay Example Furthermore, the simulation has 50 nodes in a 1500m*300m area. Nodes move according to the random way-point model. If we analyzed then we come to know that for unattended sensor networks energy consumption is the significant metric, for it maps in a straight line to network operational lifetime. In order appreciate energy use we scrutinize existing ad hoc routing protocols using models of energy expenditure and radio dissemination for the Lucent Wave LAN direct sequence increase spectrum radio by IEEE 802.11-1997. We primary only regard as energy cost outstanding to packet transmission or reaction. We calculated energy consumption of four ad hoc routing protocols (AODV, DSR, DSDV, and TORA) by a straightforward traffic model in which a only some nodes send data over a multi-hop path. By this energy model we originate that on-demand protocols such as AODV and DSR consume much fewer energy than a priori protocols such as DSDV (the shady bars in Figure 1). This makes sagacity since a priori protocols are continually expend energy pre-computing routes, even although there is no traffic passing on th ese routes (S. Ahn and A. U. Snakar, 2001, pages 56-66). Decentralization: Decentralized thoughts resides ... It's an essential idea for approaching authority, distributing rights and responsibilities additional extensively from top to bottom. Decentralization has took away lots of decision making procedure from centrally controlled authorities. Decentralization tendency carry on by the proliferation of lots of computer gadgets, similarly, notebook computers, palmtop computers. In computational web, decentralization has become part of computing environment which is connected jointly, similarly, fax machines, telephones, and television. Aims: The major aim of this project is to evaluate the performance of the StarLogo environment by simulating a variety of routing protocols in an Ad hoc network. Also, evaluating and checking the effectiveness of routing protocols in simulated environment with modify in the mobility model. What Effect Does A Change Of Mobility Model Have On The Effectiveness Of Routing Protocols In Ad Hoc complex Since it is unfeasible to evaluate the behavior of the network if the traffic nodes run out of energy previous to the transit nodes, we give traffic nodes inestimable energy. Traffic nodes follow the similar mobility model as transit nodes, but they do not run GAF or forward traffic. Since we treat traffic nodes particularly, we do not count them when exposure the number of nodes in the simulation. According to the above figure the comparison of non-zero energy node segment over time: CEC, GAF and plain ADOV under dissimilar network mobility. If we analyzed then we come to know that Traffic load is 20pkts/s. Dissimilar traffic loads do not influence the outcome. In the fable, "CEC,x" means running CEC by silence time x, so is "GAF,x". CEC also demonstrate a

Using Statistics To Describe A Study Sample Essay Example for Free

Using Statistics To Describe A Study Sample Essay Most studies describe the subjects that comprise the study sample. This description of the sample is called the sample characteristics which may be presented in a table or the narrative of the article. The sample characteristics are often presented for each of the groups in a study (i.e. experimental and control groups). Descriptive statistics are used to generate sample characteristics, and the type of statistic used depends on the level of measurement of the demographic variables included in a study (Burns Grove, 2007). For example, measuring gender produces nominal level data that can be described using frequencies, percentages, and mode. Measuring educational level usually produces ordinal data that can be described using frequencies, percentages, mode, median, and range. Obtaining each subjects specific age is an example of ratio data that can be described using mean, range, and standard deviation. Interval and ratio data are analyzed with the same type of statistics and are usually referred to as interval/ratio level data in this text. RESEARCH ARTICLE Source: Troy, N. W., Dalgas-Pelish, P. (2003). The effectiveness of a self-care intervention for the management of postpartum fatigue. Applied Nursing Research, 16 (1), 38–45. Introduction Troy and Dalgas-Pelish (2003) conducted a quasi-experimental study to determine the effectiveness of a self-care intervention (Tiredness Management Guide [TMG]) on postpartum fatigue. The study subjects included 68 primiparous mothers, who were randomly assigned to either the experimental group (32 subjects) or the control group (36 subjects) using a computer program. The results of the study indicated that the TMG was effective in reducing levels of morning postpartum fatigue from the 2nd to 4th weeks postpartum. These researchers recommend that â€Å"mothers need to be informed that they will probably experience postpartum fatigue and be taught to assess and manage this phenomenon† (Troy Dalgas-Pelish, 2003, pp. 44-5). Relevant Study Results â€Å"A total of 80 women were initially enrolled [in the study] †¦ twelve of these women dropped out of the study resulting in a final sample of 68.† (Troy   Dalgas-Pelish, 2003, p. 39). The researchers presented the characteristics of their sample in a table format for the experimental and control groups (see Table 1). The researchers found no significant differences between the control and experimental groups for any of the demographic or attribute variables. TABLE 1 Sample Characteristics by Group STUDY QUESTIONS 1. What demographic variables were included in this study? 2. Which of the demographic variables provided ordinal level data? Provide a rationale for your answer. 3. What level of measurement is the data for race? 4. What statistics were used to describe race in this study? Were these appropriate? 5. Could a mean be calculated on the race data? Provide a rationale for your answer. 6. Describe the race of both the experimental and control groups. What does this tell you about the population of this study? 7. What statistics were used to describe age in this study? Were these appropriate? Provide a rationale for your answer. 8. Were the groups similar in age? Provide a rationale for your answer. 9. What was the mode for the type of feeding provided by the experimental and the control groups? Is this mode what you would have expected? 10. Did the experimental group earn similar income to the control group? Provide a rationale for your answer. ANSWERS TO STUDY QUESTIONS 1. Demographic variables described in the study were: age, income, length of labor, return to work, number of hours working per week, race, marital status, education, type of feeding, and amount of household and infant care responsibilities. 2. The variables education and amount of household and infant care responsibilities are both measured at the ordinal level since the data for each is sorted into categories that can be rank ordered. With education, high school is the lowest level of education, some college is the next level of education, and college graduate or higher is the highest level of education. Care responsibilities include ordinal data that are ranked from a low of â€Å"None† to a high of â€Å"All.† 3. The data collected for race is nominal level since race was measured using mutually exclusive categories of White, Black, Interracial, and Middle Eastern that cannot be rank ordered.  4. Frequencies and percentages were used to describe race for the exper imental and control groups. Since the data are nominal, frequencies and percentages were appropriate. The researchers might have also identified the mode, which was White. 5. No, a mean cannot be calculated on the race data. A mean can only be calculated on interval and ratio level data that have numerically equal distances between intervals and not on nominal level data that can only be organized into categories. (See Exercises 1, 2, and 3, which are focused on identifying the level of measurements.) 6. Both the experimental and control groups are predominantly White, 92% and 96.55%, respectively. Thus, the sample is predominately White, and the results are reflective of a White or Caucasian population and not Black, Interracial, or Middle Eastern populations. 7. Age was described for both the experimental and control groups using means and standard deviations. The exact age of the subjects was obtained, providing ratio level data that are descriptively analyzed with means and standard deviations. The researchers might have also provided the range for age for both experimental and control groups. 8. The groups were very similar in age since the mean age for the experimental group was 26.72 and the mean age for the control group was 26.89. The distribution of the ages for the experimental and control groups were also very similar, with standard deviation of 5.05 for the experimental group and 5.25 for the control group. 9. Bottle-feeding was the mode for the experimental (53.1%) and the control (50%) groups since it was the most frequent type of feeding used by both groups. Either a â€Å"no† or â€Å"yes† answer is correct here as long as you provide a rationale. No, one might expect the mode to be breastfeeding since these were first-time mothers (primiparous) and breastfeeding has such positive outcomes for both infant and mother. Yes, one might expect bottle-feeding to be the mode since many of these mothers planned on returning to work. 10. No, the incomes were not similar for the two groups, but nor was the income significantly different for the groups. The means (M) and standard deviations (SD) for income indicate that the experimental (M = $35,675; SD = $23,969) and control groups (M = $41,450; SD = $17,527) were different. The control group subjects had an M, or mean, that was $5,775 higher than the experimental group, and the SD was much higher ($6,442) for the experimental group, indicating a larger range of incomes for that group. However, the narrative from the study indicated  that the groups were not significantly different for any of the demographic variables. 1. What demographic variables were measured at least at the interval level of measurement? 2. What statistics were used to describe the length of labor in this study? Were these appropriate? 3. What other statistic could have been used to describe the length of labor? Provide a rationale for your answer. 4. Were the distributions of scores similar for the experimental and control groups for the length of labor? Provide a rationale for your answer. 5. Were the experimental and control groups similar in their type of feeding? Provide a rationale for your answer. 6. What was the marital status mode for the subjects in the experimental and control groups? Provide both the frequency and percentage for the marital status mode for both groups. 7980 7. Could a median be determined for the education data? If so, what would the median be for education for the experimental and the control groups? Provide a rationale for your answer. 8. Can the findings from this study be generalized to Black women? Provide a rationale for your answer. 9. If there were 32 subjects in the experimental group and 36 subjects in the control group, why is the income data only reported for 30 subjects in the experimental group and 34 subjects in the control group? 10. Was the sample for this study adequately described? Provide a rationale for your answer.

Fall Of The Magan Civilization

Fall Of The Magan Civilization The transition of humanity from primitive life which emerged hunting and gathering with agriculture, and living in with small group during the Neolithic to establish city states under administrative authorities in the Chalcolithic ,was a tremendous leap  in the renaissance of humanity, which have significant impact on civilizations flourished in the Bronze Age. This transition had a positive impact on the progress of human knowledge in various fields. Menon ( 2010) in his book distinguishes this age by six characteristics (i) copper and bronze from the age takes its name ; (ii) harnessing of animals power ; (iii) wheeled vehicles ;(iv)the sailboat;(v) the potters wheel; and (vi) bricks (p5). These improvements changed the structure of society. Cities became a center of economy, politic, culture and religions. Societies form depended on a hierarchical system. On top hierarchy was king, priests and armies commanders and in middle farmers, artists and craftspeople and in the bottom slaves. Their economy flourished as result of diversity of occupations as well as religion system which played role to demonstrate people .Finally, Knowledge of writing led kings to record economic transactions and social events(Duiker and Spielovgel,p8). 1:1Emergence of civilizations The earliest city states in the world emergence on the banks of rivers in the Nile in Egypt, the Tigris and Euphrates in Iraq, Indus in India and the Yellow river in China. They prospered as result of availability of natural resources, trade activities and an increase of knowledge (Menon , 2010,p6). These led their neighbors to emergence as result of trade and increased demand on materials which were not available in those civilization. 1:2Emergence of Magan civilization Due to development of Mesopotamia and Harappa and Iran states , many other states emergence and grew as result of trade activities such as Magan ( present day in Sultanate of Oman and United Arab Emirates) , Meluhha (India) and Delmon (Bahrain) (. From first half of the third millennium BC, clay tablets from Mesopotamia recoded trade relations between Mesopotamians estates with these civilizations. Land Oman peninsula one of these states witnessed, from the end of fourth millennium B.C birth of the new civilization called Magan in Sumerian cuneiform and Makan in Akadian cuneiform(Weisgerber 2007,p197,198). The Magan was a major partner in intra-regional trade with the other civilizations like Mesopotamia, Syria, Iran , Indus civilization, Yemen and Horn of Africa by exporting copper and diorite Magan civilization which marked in the history of trading with (Cleuziou ,Tosi,2007,p213). Clay tablets which were found in south of Mesopotamia indicated that they obtained copper from Magan in the 3rd millennium BC. Texts from the reign of King Sargon about 2350 BC stated that Magan and Dilmun (Bahrain) and Meluhha (Indus) ships anchored at harbors of his capital Akkad , loaded and purchased goods including copper, silver, oils, beans, textiles and leather products. Copper was the one important goods that was much required by Mesopotamias states to use it in social and religious purpose. Due to limited availability of this metal, they imported it from their neighbors especially from Magan (Weisgerber 2007, p197,198). Extensive investigations in the Oman peninsula have situated many archaeological sites belong to Magan civilization. The sites Archeologists called this phase Hafit which is attributed to the first site that was discovered on the border of Oman and United Arab Emirates by Danish expedition. The archaeological researches presented the first phases of Magan civilization which as follow: The archaeological studies have shown that the era of Magan civilization which extended from the end of 4th millennium BC to the end of second millennium BC, encountered growth and declined in its economy which reflected to communitys remains which they were found whether in settlements or graves. This essay will track the traces of rise and fall of the Magan civilization from two aspects, mining and copper smelting and tombs of the people of this civilization. 2. The development of Copper production Even though , the chemical analysis for composition of copper samples ,found in the Mesopotamia which have proved that their source was Oman peninsula(Berthoud and Clezuiou,1983,p239,v6,p2), there are some views have tried to link name of Magan to east coast of Iran. The main reason for their orientation is that copper were produced in Iranian side (Clezuiou and Mery,2002,p275). However, Cannot be denied that the copper had a role in the renaissance of civilization in the peninsula of Oman. Investigations and archaeological studies in Oman and the United Arab Emirates over last the years, have indicated that the of Oman mountains range contain a large proportion of copper ore which exists in Ophiolites rocks, extending from Musandam in the north to Masirah island in the south. Therefore, more than 150 copper sites have been found, exploited since the Bronze age until the Medieval ( Hauptmann, Weisgerber and Bachmann, p35). Most of these sites locate in Sumail in interior region, Wadi Andam, Wadi Ibra and Lasail in Sohar (Potts 1978, p35). Archaeological studies of a number of mining and smelting sites have shown that mining and smelting copper were similar in all the Calcholithic and Bronze Age sites. Moreover, the techniques of extraction and production was advanced since the end of the Chalcolithic period, that means they were influenced from Neighbors in the Near East (Weisgerber,2006,p:193,194).These technique began with digging and extracting cupriferous mineral Malachite and Azurite sources by using stone or metal hammers. After collecting ore, it was crushed on stone pestles to small pieces to be able to smelt them later. Then, they were smelted in pear shaped furnaces made of clay (Weisgerber, 2007, p: 197,198), with 50 cm diameter and 60-80 cm height and provided by blowpipes, made of leather used for ventilation. At a temperature of more than 1100c fluid copper flowed into hole the ground of furnaces and formed as bun shape ingot or ingot when they become cooled. Thus, the product is ready for exploiting, wh ether for local use or for exporting (Weisgerber, 2007, p197,198). Copper ingots which were prepared for exporting were transferred to number of ports by using donkeys. Umm-an-Nar in Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates was one of the important ports of Magan civilization. Merchants from Mesopotamia obtained their copper ingot with 1 to 2 kg weight. It might also, there was a internal network trade ,connected internal settlements with those in coastal line which it has still followed in present time .Serg Cleuziou ( 1996,p161) states to this kind of trade network fish processed on various ways (salted ,smoked ,dried) already travelled to the interior and that the coastal settlements moved from a subsistence oriented production to a larger scale export oriented production ,thus becoming fully integrated into the exchange system built around the exportation of copper. Through surveys and studies of archaeological in many mining of copper sites, made possible to make timeline for the development for this industry from 3200 1300 BC. 2:1 Copper production Hafit period (Chalcolithic 3200-2500BC) Copper industry in this period began with simple production. A few of mining and smelting sites were found, but often it is difficult to identify them from other sites, belonging to subsequent periods because of continued exploitation of these sites (Weisgerber,v6/2,p270). However, archaeologists were able to follow attacks of this period through the figments of furnaces and waste (slag) of copper production or through artifacts such as needles which found in tomb at Maysar -25 , halberd from Bat site and fish- hocks in Ras-Al-Hamra site RH-5 Ras al-Hadd HD-6 (Cleuziou,1996,p160) . Extensive studies in mining sites, which were carried out by the German mission from Bochum Museum have indicated that, copper production in this period might be poorly developed and it was fluctuating over the period. In addition, they noticed that copper smelting sites were far from mines. This indicates that copper ore could be transferred to settlements by smelters and donkeys. For example, At Batin site in the Ibra state, which was dated to 2660 BC, many heaps of slag, furnaces fragments and hammer stones ( used for crushing ore and slag) are spread on surface of settlement , but mines are not exist in same area(Weisgerber, 2006,p192) . 2:2 Copper productions in the Umm-an-Nar period (Early Bronze Age 2500-2000BC) Outset of half of the 3rd millennium BC marked to an enormous increase in human activity in copper production. This is indicated by the mining sites which are located in the mountains of the peninsula, stretching from Al-Safawir in the united Arab Emiratis to Masirah Island in Oman ( Hauptmann ).It can be seen also through Mesopotamian clay tablets which began to point out to Megans copper. Copper industrial in this age progresed forward by alloying tin factor with copper to produce bronze, which is harder than the copper ( Prang and Hauptman,p75). It also appears that the Magan and Dilmon have played a role in tin and copper trade in the Bronze Age. This was indicated by the analytical studies of copper and bronze assemblages found in Oman and the United Emiratis. This Scientific evidence dissented previous opinion which said that region did not know has this kind of trading( Weeks,2003,p116). Despite this scientific fact, there some archaeologists such as Michael Prange and Andreas Hauptmann believe that0 tin bronze production started late in central of Oman in the second millennium BC, but it was known in one site in the United Arab Emirates(Yule and Weisgerber,2001,p75). Although this view based on archaeological excavations in some mining sites in central of Oman, there are many other mining sites which have been not studied yet and could give a clear image about b eginning of tin bronze production in central Oman. 2:3 Copper productions in the Wadi suq period (Middle Bronze Age 2000-1300BC) In the second millennium BC, something happened that affected on lifestyle of Magans society. Oases might be abandoned and replaced by nomadic style (Cleuziou and Tosi 2007,p257).There was a widespread perception this change has had a negative effect on copper production during this period, but the large number of copper assemblages which were found at the site of Qattara and Awasit and Nizwa grave continued with extensive production throughout second millennium BC(Velde,2001,p109) .In addition an excavations at Bir Kalhar in Almodhbi and Samad al-Shan state have shown that no change apparent in furnace techniques was similar to previous ages (Weisgerber,2006, p196). The expository article by Weisgerber in 1997 ,successfully demonstrates a clear explanation of fall of Magan in secocond millennium BC the importance. He highlights that the internal political crisis in the Indus civilization ,which was one of the important trading partners for the Magan in the tin trade as well as developing copper production technology in Anatolia in Turkey and Alashia in Cyprus which reduced a copper price, were the main reasons for the collapse of the civilization. Thus, Mesopotamia merchants began to import their copper from new countries(p11). In Magan, copper production began to be limited for domestic uses and bronze assemblage was rarely found (Weisgerber ,2007,p287). 3. The development of funerary architecture Funerary architecture was a major concerned by most old civilizations ,because of strong belief of the existence of life after death. Thus, they have been one of the importance monuments in archaeological studies, especially in social, economic and religious aspects which prevailed in these communities. Tombs On land Oman peninsula are the most remarkable monuments . They can be seen in many places Oman Peninsula , on foothills mountains ranges and in bottom of valleys ( Clouziou and Tosi ,2007,p107). They were the first monuments that attracted many archaeological missions to study history of this civilization. Extensive studies have revealed ,there is gradual evolution in funerary architecture from the end of 4rd to3rd millennium BC and abrupt change in this architecture from the second millennium BC . 3:1 Tombs in Hafit period 3200-2700BC They were labeled these tombs as beehive tombs a well known beehive shape in Europe while some others called them cottages. Regarding the architectural design, these tombs were designed in a way that they have two parallel walls surrounding a circle, oval, square or rectangle burial room the floor of which is covered with stony plates. The walls are built using unpolished stones taken from nearby Limestone Mountains without using mortar. The external view of the temples varies according to the type of stones used in construction; some of them are polished and some are not. The internal wall has soft frontages constructed with a particular type of stones organized systematically with fills of small stones that occurs in between. The width of the external wall is lesser and separated from the internal wall with a fill of small stones. In some cases, a third wall is added to these temples. The burial room is roofed with stones that lean towards the surface so that it appeared to be flat . In some temples, a supportive wall was noticed to be constructed inside burial rooms. The entrance of burial rooms takes the form of triangle or square towards south, east or west. After burying dead bodies, these entrances are to be blocked using stones. Mostly, these tombs are mass graves which contain no less than 3 to 30 skeletons of males and females of different ages and some of them are individual. The corpse will be put by its lateral side squatting accompanied by its funereal belongings including daggers, bead necklaces, stony tools and pottery vessels imported from Jimdat Nasr civilization, Mesopotamia. As we know, inhabitants of that period were not aware of pottery industry yet. They just import it or maybe imitate producing this type of clay. These tombs continued to be used for long periods reaching one or two centuries by family groups each one of which used one tomb or more. At later periods of time, the old skeletons were to be pushed aside and the tomb shall be used for new corpses. 3:2.Tombs in the Umm an Nar period 2700-2000BC By the beginning of 2700 B.C, architecture of tombs changed as result of the economic development of Majan civilization. Most of them were built at the plain close to the dwellings of settlements. They become of bigger size and have more rooms to include more corpses; two to four corpses separated by dividing walls. Some temples include two semi-circle rooms divided by central wall one end of which is linked to the wall of the tomb from inside. Some of them include three rooms divided by two central parallel walls constructed in the middle of the tomb separately and their ends are linked to the internal wall of tomb. Some other temples include four rooms divided by central wall constructed in the middle of the tomb and two small walls branch out from it to form the four rooms. In addition, there is one more type which is a wall dividing the tomb into two halves (picture 15). These tombs have one or two entrances located at the eastern or western side. They are 50 cm higher than ground surface, 60- 70 cm tall and 60 cm wide at the lower part. These entrances are locked using three stones of particular shapes: two in the lower part and one in the upper. The floor of burial room was tiled used flat limestone. The internal walls were built using unpolished stones strengthened with mortar. The external walls or frontages of tombs of early Umm- an-Nar period (2700- 2400 B.C) were built using brown and white limestone. These stones were removed from nearby quarries, transferred to the site and then polished taking the shape of small tangle or square cubes (picture 16). They are made curved to be in the same line with the circle wall. These tombs look very nice and the polished limestone look like pieces of sugar. The diameter of temples of this period was 7 -8 m. By the beginning of late period of Umm-an-Nar, the frontage walls of these become greater. Some of them contain two floors the height of which is about 10 12m and sometimes 14m. They were built by using huge limestone plates reaching 1m height and they were decorated with prominent sculptures comprising drawings of humans, animals and snakes. These drawings help understanding the nature of lifestyle of inhabitants of 3000 BC. The roofs of Umm-an-Nar temples were flattened using huge stony plates. A roof gutter at the external ends of the tomb surface is provided to drain rainwater.

Tuite’s Literary Criticism of Lewis’ The Monk Essay -- Monk

Tuite’s Literary Criticism of Lewis’ The Monk I would like to preface this by saying that one of the things I learned from this exercise is that, just because an article exists in published form, does not necessarily mean that it is a good article. This is the conclusion I reached after plowing, dictionary in hand, through two articles that were, respectively, ridiculously elementary after one hacked through the jargon, and entirely absurd and unsupported. Disheartened, I went searching again, and this time, came up with "Cloistered Closets: Enlightenment Pornography, The Confessional State, Homosexual Persecution and The Monk," by Clara Tuite, and it is this article that I am writing about. Tuite's only fault in this article is perhaps that she tries to tackle too much. (Something else I'm discovering as I try to summarize it.) Essentially, she tries to prove the existence of visible homoerotic elements in The Monk, and their link to antiCatholicism. No small feat. She quotes Coleridge in his review of The Monk as saying, the novel blends "with an irreverent negligence, all that is most awfully true in religion with all that is most ridiculously absurd in superstition" (1). The reason this is problematic for Coleridge, according to Tuite, is that it reveals the inherent hypocrisy in the English Church, that is, that the Church condemns, with superstitious intensity, the rituals and superstitions of the Catholic Church. Coleridge fears, "Lewis' contamination of Protestantism by Catholicism" (2). Since at this time a great deal of the English State/Church depended on the assumption that Catholicism was low and wrong and Protestantism the ultimate right, the parallels draw n between Protestantism and Catholicism by Lewis were ... ...Lewis attempts, through this, to disassociate homosexuality with Catholicism, thereby trying to make a Hated Other, at least hated only once over, not twice (9). This, I thought, was an excellent article. Tuite has some very good points, which explained, at least partially, some of the questions I had as to Lewis' intentions with the homoerotic elements in the novel, which to my mind, he had included, but never really developed. Essentially, Tuite clarified for me why, though Ambrosio commits every other kind of sinful" excess, this is one he leaves untouched. And I think she proves a very valid argument. Works Cited Tuite, Clara. "Cloistered Closets: Enlightenment Pornography, The Confessional Sate, Homosexual Persecution anal The Monk." Romanticism On the Net 8 (November 1997): n. pag. Online. Internet. (4/5/98) http://users.ox.ac.uk/~scat0385/closet.html Tuite’s Literary Criticism of Lewis’ The Monk Essay -- Monk Tuite’s Literary Criticism of Lewis’ The Monk I would like to preface this by saying that one of the things I learned from this exercise is that, just because an article exists in published form, does not necessarily mean that it is a good article. This is the conclusion I reached after plowing, dictionary in hand, through two articles that were, respectively, ridiculously elementary after one hacked through the jargon, and entirely absurd and unsupported. Disheartened, I went searching again, and this time, came up with "Cloistered Closets: Enlightenment Pornography, The Confessional State, Homosexual Persecution and The Monk," by Clara Tuite, and it is this article that I am writing about. Tuite's only fault in this article is perhaps that she tries to tackle too much. (Something else I'm discovering as I try to summarize it.) Essentially, she tries to prove the existence of visible homoerotic elements in The Monk, and their link to antiCatholicism. No small feat. She quotes Coleridge in his review of The Monk as saying, the novel blends "with an irreverent negligence, all that is most awfully true in religion with all that is most ridiculously absurd in superstition" (1). The reason this is problematic for Coleridge, according to Tuite, is that it reveals the inherent hypocrisy in the English Church, that is, that the Church condemns, with superstitious intensity, the rituals and superstitions of the Catholic Church. Coleridge fears, "Lewis' contamination of Protestantism by Catholicism" (2). Since at this time a great deal of the English State/Church depended on the assumption that Catholicism was low and wrong and Protestantism the ultimate right, the parallels draw n between Protestantism and Catholicism by Lewis were ... ...Lewis attempts, through this, to disassociate homosexuality with Catholicism, thereby trying to make a Hated Other, at least hated only once over, not twice (9). This, I thought, was an excellent article. Tuite has some very good points, which explained, at least partially, some of the questions I had as to Lewis' intentions with the homoerotic elements in the novel, which to my mind, he had included, but never really developed. Essentially, Tuite clarified for me why, though Ambrosio commits every other kind of sinful" excess, this is one he leaves untouched. And I think she proves a very valid argument. Works Cited Tuite, Clara. "Cloistered Closets: Enlightenment Pornography, The Confessional Sate, Homosexual Persecution anal The Monk." Romanticism On the Net 8 (November 1997): n. pag. Online. Internet. (4/5/98) http://users.ox.ac.uk/~scat0385/closet.html

Publicity Strategy Used by the Dot in Bukidnon

Promotional tool is defined as a communication link between sellers and buyers for the purpose of influencing, informing, or persuading a potential buyers purchasing decision retrieved from wikipedia. This will help the product to be well- known to the public. Promotional tool is to very important in commercial and non commercial industries like hospitals, school and universities to arouse their marketing interest. Televisions, radio, newspapers, internet and word-of-mouth are some common forms used in promotion. A very good promotional tool will help a particular business to gain more profit because of the market popularity about the product. The more familiar the product is the more possibility that he market will demand on it, that is why promotional tool of particular firm should be well developed, convenient to the public and applicable to the market. Business industries are one of the sectors in the industry that uses promotional tool for the awareness of the market and their product. Aside from that is the tourism industry. Tourism may be defined as a travel for recreational, leisure or business purposes (wikipedia). Tourism brings money to the public by tourist spots. A very good tourist spots will lead to a progressive living, as what Sec. Ace Durano (said) â€Å"kung maraming turismo maraming trabaho† and that is really true, because a single tourist spot can give profit to many businesses. An example is a tourist who dines in restaurant could give benefit to the restaurant and the restaurant will purchase new ingredients from the market which will give the market a profit, and the market will buy again supplies from the farmers. And that is the greatest effect of tourism in the country and the most important tool for a good and progressive tourism in promoting. Bukidnon became very well known because of its asset which is tourism. Philippines is not rich financially but it’s abundant in natural tourist spots. There are many tourist spots in the different regions of the country. These tourist spots become familiar to other countries because of a good promotional tool that the government used. Tourism really developed, if a good promotional tool will be used. The Department of Tourism (DOT) uses internet, televisions, newspapers, brochures, and even in some appliances like the very well known Magic Sing which uses the different tourist spots in the Philippines as its background. Those are some of the advertising techniques that they used. The researchers, being the residents of Bukidnon, want to know the promotional tool used by the Department of Tourism of Buidnon’s tourist spots. It has been observed that tourist spots in Bukidnon do not even know other tourist spots in Bukidnon and even on the location of the tourist spots. The researcher focuses on the promotional tool used in tourism industry in Bukidnon to know the reasons why it is not familiar, and conduct a study to know the specific rules and approaches used in solving problem on the not well known tourist spots in Bukidnon. Conceptual Framework This study is based on the concept of Libed (1980), that region X has been singled out of te major tourist destinations in 1979. It was reported that 179 international tourist had been recorded to have visited the province. By that, promotional tools are focused on this study to promote Bukidnon natural tourist spots. According to McDonough and Ackert (2002), Promotion is the activities of people to communicate with others about business. In tourism, this includes wide variety of activities including brochures, billboards and newspaper ads. Promotion also includes careful planning. Accordingly there are four main promotional tools: advertising, personal selling, sales promotion and publicity. Developing an effective promotional strategy demands more than just being aware of the tools of promotion. Promotion is an ongoing process that requires much planning. And a strategy is a careful plan. The schematic diagram in Fig. 1 illustrates the four main promotional tools and its effectiveness. The first frame shows the promotional tools. Under promotional tools first is publicity. Publicity strategy generates new tourist and increase sales, creates awareness of products by providing information about new or unique aspects (retrieved from publicity ship. com). Advertising is a form of communication that intends to persuade an audience (viewers, readers or listeners) to purchase or take some actions upon products. These include wall paintings, billboards, street furniture components, printed flyers, radio, cinema, television ads, web banner, magazines, newspapers and etc. Personal selling is an oral communication with potential buyers with the intention in making sale. The personal seller may focus initially on developing a relationship with the potential buyer, but will ultimately end with an attempt to â€Å"close the sales†. This may include negotiation on same travel and for operators. Sales promotion, a media or non-media marketing communication are employed or pre-determined and limited time to determine customer demand. Examples are contest, point of purchase displays, rebate, free travel such as free flights. The second frame is on the effectiveness of the tools used by the Department of Tourism. This will be identified through distributing questionnaires to the respondents. Showing the list of natural tourist spots and the different promotional tools that are possibly used. The respondents may identify the questionnaire of particular tourist spots if familiar or not. Fig. 1 Schematic diagram showing the variables of the study. Statement of the Problem. This study investigates publicity strategies used by the Department of Tourism to promote the tourist spots of Bukidnon. Specifically, this study aims to answer the following questions. What are the promotional tools used by the Department of Tourism in promoting Bukidnon’s natural tourist spots? How effective are the strategies used by the Department of Tourism in promoting the popularity of the Bukidnon’s tourist spots. Significance of the Study As this research is concerned with the promotional tool used by the Tourism, this study will refresh the ideas and strategies in promotion. This study is hope to shed light to the following. Department of Tourism of Bukidnon shall have an action towards promoting natural tourist spots. However, this study is one way to make province of Bukidnon show its hidden land of magnificent and infinitely varied scenery of mountains, caves, forests, lakes, waterfalls, rivers and streams. For the Department of Tourism and staff and officials, this study will provide them an information and ideas how they promote natural tourist spots of the said province. It also serves as a basis to provide them on how to maintain and manage the promotional tool in order that it will remain its identity as one of the most visited spots in the country. For the people in the community who receive the indirect benefit of the study , this study will help them to start their simple source of income. It will help lessen the number of overseas workers. It will help the economic stability of the province as it increases its per capita income. It will also increase the GDP (Gross Domestic Product), increase in foreign revenue and develop small industries. For the student whose inclinations are in tourism industry, this will help them in the different promotional tools used by the DOT. Consequently, they will learn how these promotion strategies are done. Delimitation of the Study This study is delimited to the DOT’s promotional tools for Bukinon’s tourist spots for years 2010-2011. It is further delimited to the promotion of natural tourist spots that need to be promoted domestically and internationally. To gather needed data, a self-made questionnaire will be used. It will be distributed to number of respondents, computed by slovin’s formula. Definition of Terms The following terms are defined theoretically or operationally. Promotional tool. This term is one of the elements of marketing mix (product, price, promotion, and distribution). It is the communication link between sellers and buyers for the purpose of influencing, informing or persuading a potential buyer’s purchasing decision. In this study promotional tool is a strategy used by the DOT to promote Bukidnon’s natural tourist spots. Tourist spots. These are places of interest where tourists visit typically for inherent or exhibited cultural value, historical significance, natural or built beauty, or amusement opportunities (Reyn Ramas).

Hammurabis code essays

Hammurabis code essays In his position as King of Babylonia, Hammurabi managed to organize the world's first code of laws and establish Babylon as the dominant and successful Amorite city of its time. "Records written on clay tablets show that Hammurabi was a very capable administrator and a successful warrior. When he became king in 1792, he was still young, but had already become entrusted with many official duties in his administration"(Grolier). His rule spanned from 1792 B.C. to 1750 B.C. During the forty-three years he ruled he united all of Mesopotamia. In the early years of his reign, Hammurabi mostly participated in traditional activities, such as repairing buildings, digging canals, and fighting wars. Yet later in his rule, Hammurabi organized a unique code of laws, the first of its kind, therefore making himself one of the world's most influential leaders. Hammurabi was primarily influential to the world because of his code of laws. This code consisted of 282 provisions, systematically arranged under a variety of subjects. This code of laws reflected the social structure of Babylon and set examples for many future civilizations. He sorted his laws into groups such as family, labor, personal property, real estate, trade, and business. This was the first time in history that any laws had been categorized into various sections. This format of organization was emulated by civilizations of the future. For example, Semitic cultures succeeding Hammurabi's rule used some of the same laws that were included in Hammurabi's code. Arabian laws also seemed to be derived from Hammurabis code. Hammurabi's method of thought is evident in present day societies which are influenced by his code. Modern governments currently create specific laws, which are placed into their appropriate family of similar laws. Hammurabi had his laws recorded upon an eight foot high black stone monument which was clearly inten ...

Explain the Decision Making Process with Example of Your Own Essays

Explain the Decision Making Process with Example of Your Own Essays Explain the Decision Making Process with Example of Your Own Essay Explain the Decision Making Process with Example of Your Own Essay EXPLAIN THE DECISION MAKING PROCESS WITH EXAMPLE OF YOUR OWN. Introduction:- Decision making is an integral part of the most of the top managers duties. Not even a single day passes without taking decisions particularly in modern organisations. Hence, management and decision ­ making are considered as inseparable. In fact, whatever a manager does, he can do it only by taking some decision. All matters related to planning, organization, staffing, directing and controlling are engrossed in decision making process. That is why it is aptly pointed out that management is essentially a decision-making process. The survival and future success of any enterprise is directly related to the ability to take timely and appropriate decision by the executives. Thus decision-making is said to be the heart of management. Lot of planning exercise is to be initiated by the manager before taking any viable decision. The manager has to carefully plan and decide what to do or what not to do. Wrong decisions quite often are proved to be either costly or futile. To prevent such losses, decision-making process remains to be the core are in all planned activities of the modern corporations. The selection from among alternatives of a course of action, according to this definition, picking one course of action among alternatives available is termed as decision-making as per Koontz and Weinrich. In the words of George Terry,decision-making is the selection of a particular course of action, based on some criteria, from two or more possible alternatives. We can define this concept also as the process of choosing between various alternatives for achieving a specified goal. Every decision must take into consideration needs and future uncertainties. As per Herbert Simon there are three major steps in the decision making process. Decision making is about choosing from several options or ideas and taking action to generate a particular result. It is usually considered to be a rational and logical thinking process. JRecognition and understanding of the problem. JVarious alternatives may be developed. Jcareful assessment of alternatives available for taking a better decisions. Characteristics JDecision making is a continuous process. JThe question of decision-making process must always be rational when there are alternatives. JA decision-making process must always be rational and purposeful. JDecision making is an intellectual process supported by good reasoning and sound judgment. JDecision making is all pervasive in the sense that all levels of managers need to take decisions of varied nature. JDecision-making is always related to future only. Troes of Decisions: Managerial decision may be classified into two categories, the first category includes the typical, routine and unimportant decisions and the second category covers most important, vital and strategic decisions. Apart from decisions are taken at different levels for meeting different problems. Oraanisational Vs Personnel Decisions:- As explained by Chester. I. Bernard, the decisions taken by the manager in his official capacity are termed as Organisational decisions. These decisions have a direct bearing on the functioning of the firm. Decision relating to reward systems or transfer of workers can be cited as examples under this category. In contrast to this, some times, decisions may be taken by the manager in his individual capacity and such decisions are termed as personal decisions. They may partly affect the personal life and partly affect the organization. Example,decision to quit the organization comes under this category. Routine Vs Strategic Decision:- Routine decisions involve little risk and uncertainty. Hence, they do not call for extraordinary judgement and thinking. They are mostly related day-to-day conduct of the business and taken repetitively. Thats why they are normally taken at lower levels of management. On the other hand strategic decisions are taken by the top level management. Either they are concerned with policy matters or with long-term commitments of the organization. They require thorough understanding, analysis and best judgement, pertaining to location of the plant, type of technology and channel of distribution are the best examples of this type. Policy Vs Operating Decisions:- Policy acts as guidelines for future action. Hence,decisions pertaining to policies are usually taken by the top management. They are considered to be very important since they affect the total organization. While operating decisions are administrative in character, they help in translating policies into action. Decisions relating to a new incentive scheme may be termed as a policy decision. Decisions relating to the methodology of implementation of such incentive scheme are termed as operating decisions. Programmed Vs Non-Programmed decisions:- Programmed decisions usually deals with routine and repetitive problems. For dealing such problems, systematic policies, procedures and rules are established. Programmed decisions can be taken with little ease as everything goes according to some set of rules. But Non-Programmed decisions cover mainly unexpected events and challenges. In other words, each problem is unique in nature. For dealing with such special problems, executives usually refer them to the top management, tackling such situations , the manager needs expertise,intuition and creative thinking. Individual Vs Group decisions:- Decisions taken by the individual in his personal capacity are known as individual decisions. Organisations which are small in size can accommodate this type of decision-making process. When organizations grow in size and stature, complex problems do come into picture. Group decisions are considered to be the best under such situations. Group decisions represent the thinking of more than one executive. The various steps involved in the decision-making process are as explained below:- Step 1 Defining the oroblem The first step is to define the real problem, money and efforts are going to be wasted if the problem is not determined correctly. That s why, accurate diagnosis of the real problem is necessary to find out right solution. We should look at the real causes and for the remedial measures by knowing the inner details of the problem. Knowing only the outer surface of the problem and arriving at decisions may lead to fallacious conclusions. SteP 2- AnalYSing the Problem Once the problem is clearly defined, then, it must be analysed in the light of data pertaining to various factors that surmount the decision. Every situation may have some advantages and limitations. Necessary steps should be laid on locating the limitations and obstacles in achieving the desired result. Necessary care should be exercised in avoiding personalized bias in judging the certain factors. Analysis of crucial factors provides a sound basis for making effective decisions. Step 3- Developing alternatives The analysis of the problem becomes complete once it throws light on several alternative solutions. In fact, the success of decision-making process depends upon the ability of an executive in developing alternative solutions to a given problem. This requires lot of imagination, experience and judgement. Exploring the positive or negative impact of such alternatives forms as a solid base for sound decisions. Step 4- Evaluating alternative Once the alternatives are developed , the next step is to evaluate them in terms of their cause, time , impact and objectives etc. Many a time, either marginal cost or cost-benefit analysis is used to bring out the tangible benefits of each of such alternatives. Each alternative solution may have its own merits and de-merits. They should be compared with other alternatives for the purpose of appraising the real impact. As per Mr. Peter F Drucker, the important criteria for evaluating the consequences of different alternatives are risk,economy, time and limitations. Steo 5- Selecting the best possible solution Selection usually involves choice making. It is the last step in decision-making process. The manager has to select such an alternative course of action which can make the maximum contribution to the goal. It is not always possible to select the best alternative for a given problem. That is why the manger has to rely upon such course of action which can yield good results under a given set of circumstances and limitations. Step 6- Imolementing the decision Once the best alternative is selected, it must be implemented. This step mainly deals with the execution of the decision taken. It involves development of step by step plans, selling the idea to sub-ordinates and seeking co-operation from the needy people. At this stage, the decision is converted into action. The decision must be implemented in the right time and that too in a proper way. Step 7- Evaluation of Decisions The last step in decision-making process is evaluation. The actual results of the decision should be compared with the expected results in order to locate the reasons for deviations. This review is a continuous process and it generates information for necessary feedback for further improving the decision-making process in future. Rationality in decision-making Rationality refers to objective and intelligent action. A decision is said to be rational if appropriate means are chosen to accomplish desired objectives. It implies that decision-maker tries to maximize the values in a given situation by choosing the most suitable course of action. A good decision depends on the makers being consciously aware of the factors that set the stage for the decision. Obtaining complete rationality is not always possible. That is the reason why people prefer to take satisfactory decisions instead of ideal or optimum decisions. Managers are not always confronted by the problem of rationality in decision-making. In practice, they confine themselves to few important alternatives which have limited risks combined with favourable consequences. Limits of Rational Decision making Managers are not always rational in their decision-making. They cannot always abide by the demands of rationality in decision-making process. There are some limitations to that and of which are as explained below. Since decisions are related to future, Managers cannot foresee all the consequences accurately. Moreover, lack of complete knowledge about the problem also makes it impossible to choose a good decision. Due to time and cost constraints, all complex variables that have a bearing on decision cannot be examined fully. Hence, the decision maker is forced to strike a balance between complete rationality and hard realities on the ground. The impact of all the variables cannot be ascertained because some of them are intangible. The consequences of various alternatives cannot be anticipated accurately. Hence, decisions taken under uncertainty cannot guarantee the success of decision-making process. The Human factors like value systems, perceptions, social factors, institution etc. are the main limits on rational decision-making. Managers, being human beings, are greatly influenced by their personal beliefs, attitudes and biases. Because of this, the capacity of a decision-making process varies from individual to individual and from situation to situation. Every manger is vitally concerned with the above limitations in his approach to rational decision-making. He has to collect all the relev ant information and try to overcome the above limits on rationality and choose the most rational decision for solving any given problem. Baiers of Effective Decision Making Apart from the above limitations, decision-making process remains to be ineffective because of the existence of various barriers in organization structure. These barriers impede the process of identification of problems. Its analysis and the development of the solutions. The following are the important barriers that can block managerial effectiveness in choosing the most suitable decision as per Elbing. The tendency of a human-being to evaluate a given problem with pre-conceived notions, act as a stumbling block in understanding the real situation. Though its dangerous, managers feel safer if they do not change what is familiar. Eventually, the ineffective decision of a familiar way becomes accepted rather than considering new and innovative means. Many managers fail to demarcate the symptoms from the main problem. Many mangers have a tendency to respond to the problem instantaneously without proper infonmation and thinking. If they gather more infonnation, they become rather than what is unique in new problem. The above problems are mainly responsible for either indecision or for half decision in the modern organizations. Knowledge of the above problems will surely help the managers in arriving at pragmatic decisions. The following suggestions can be offered to overcome the above barriers so as to make the managers more effective in decision-making process. Avoid premature evaluation. Initiate impartial probing by avoiding personal biases on the outcome. Develop a sound system that can supply adequate information for making decisions. Encourage group leaders to respond to a given situation and compare the pros and cons of the solutions offered by the two groups for making an effective decision. Encourage innovative thinking among the sub-ordinates so as to identify the crux of the problem without waste of time and money. When decisions of critical and pivotal in nature are to be taken, encourage group thinking. For this, the problem is to be presented to the sub-ordinates first and they are asked to develop as many solutions as possible in a free environment. Techniques of Decision -making Brainstorming:- Brainstorming is the oldest and widely followed technique for encouraging creative thinking. It was originally developed by A. F. Osbom. It involves the use of a group. This is an approach to improve problem discovery and solving by encouraging sub-ordinates to give their ideas and solutions in a free environment, they will generate creative ideas. Continuous interaction through free discussions may result in spontaneous and creative thinking. The larger the number of solutions , the fairer are the chances in locating an acceptable solution. The research proves that on hour brainstorming system is likely to generate 50 150 ideas. It is interesting to note that while most of them are proved to be impracticable, at least, some of them merit serious consideration. This group process is not without limitations. It continues lot of time and therefore,is an expensive exercise. Secondly,it emphasises only quantity of solutions which more often than not proved to be superficial. By overcoming the above limitations, a modern manager can use this an an effective tool. Some of the claimed advantages of the brainstorming technique include:-  » It reduces dependence on a single authority figure.  » It encourages the open sharing of ideas.  » It stimulates participation among group members. It provides individual safety in a competitive group.  » It maximizes output for a short period of time.  » It ensure a non evaluative climate.  » It tends to be enjoyable and stimulating. Synetics- When compared to Brainstorming, synectics is a new concept developed by William J. J. Gorden. The terms Synectics is derived from a Greek word which refers to Fitting together of diverse elements. It starts on the premise that this concept encourages novel thin king for the development of alternatives through putting together different ideas which are distinct from each other. A given problem is presented to a group of people with different backgrounds and varied experience. It is the responsibility of the group leader to present the problem and lead the discussions in order to stimulate creative solutions. This approach ensures on the spot evaluation of members suggestions. The leader who is a technical expert is always assisting the group in evaluating the feasibility of their ideas. But experience shows that synectics has been less widely used than Brainstorming. When the problem is real tough and challenging, this approach is used for effective decision-making. Like Brainstorming it also suffers from the same range of limitations. The synectic techniwue includes the following steps:- Problem statement and background information stage:- The group leader describes the general area of discussion but avoids identifying the specific problem . Creative thinking on the problem is encouraged. The leader presents background information on the problem and the goals associated with the idea solutions. Good wishing stage:- Group members are encouraged to wish for anything that comes to mind that could address the problem. As in brainstorming, in this freewheeling stage people are encouraged to generate wild ideas and to hitchhike. Exploring ideas and not evaluating them are of utmost importance at this stages. Excursion stage:- Paricipants are asked to forget about the specific problem. They are asked to generate ideas about a somewhat unrelated are that eventually might be related to the problem at hand. Forced-fit stage. Participants take ideas from the excursion stage and force them to fit the initial problem. Although this often appears quite unusual and obtuse, it is intended to encourage creativity. In fact,evidence suggests that many great thinkers develop ideas from such experimental thinking. Intemized response stage:- The group picks one of the ideas generated during the forced fit stage and pursues it further. The idea is dissected on only its positive aspects are identified. After all the positive aspects have been explored,the ideas limitations are addressed. This focus on the positive is intended to encourage productivity and creativity. The outcome of the synectic process is a single unique plan or decision that has undergone considerable evaluation. The process tends to produce innovative ideas. Synectic approach can be quite useful for creative planning and decision making. Its cost is high. Furthermore, it produces only one potential solution to a problem. If that solution turns out to be unusable,the problem remains, and the process has failed. The Nominal Group: The nominal group consists of people knowledgeable on the issue to be decided who are in the same physical location and who are aware of each other but who do not directly interact while they are working together. The specific techniques for using the nominal group in decision-making vary with the situation, but usually the following steps are involved. l The manger brings the group together and outlines the problem. lEach member of the group generates a number of ideas in writing. lEach member then presents a single idea at a time to the entire group. The ideas are written on a blackboard or on large pieces of paper, and discussion of them is limited to clarification. When no further ideas merge, or when the manager feels the process has gone far enough, each member votes on the ideas, again in writing. The final decision is summed outcome of the individual votes, but the manager is free to accept or reject it. Ooerations Research:- The Origin and development of operations research is attributed to military operations and applications in 2 world war. The war put tremendous pressure on the use of available scarce resources for various strategic and tactical operations. The success of operations research in developing options of effective and efficient nature was instrumental in making this approach rather dependable in decision making process. Now-a-days, greater emphasis has been laid on the use of mathematical models to reflect different options and constraints in a situation and their effect on a selected goal. This quantitative approach to decision-making is usually referred as Operations Research. Of late, it has become an invaluable tool in the kit of a decision-maker. Operations Research employs optimizing models like Linear Programming, Project Management,Inventory Control, Decision Theory and Waiting Line Theory. Operations Research is the systematic method of studying the basic structure, functions and relationships of an organization as an open system. It always adopts a systems approach to management in getting things done. It is constantly interested in developing optimal solution with limited resources in a given situation. It covers six steps in its approach to problem solving. They are: a. Identification of a problem. b. Construction of a mathematical model to investigate the problem. c. Developing a good solution. d. Testing of the model in the light, the data available. e. Identifying and setting up of control points. f. Implementation of the option as a solution to a critical problem, putting a solution to work. In essence, Operations Research attempts to develop the best solution that will contribute to organizational goals. Limitations of Operation Research:- Operations Research technique is not panacea to all the problems of modern management. In other words, it is not the end. Since Operations Research does not take intangible aspects into consideration, subjective judgement becomes difficult under this model. As the Operations Research technique directly depends upon the use of mathematical and statistical tools,it is increasingly becoming complex and costly exercise. Since decision making is a human process,It cannot be predicted properly. At the same time, the impact of such factors cannot be measurable. Delphi Technique:- It is a technique normally used for forecasting future events. It is a group decision making technique. Under this method, independent opinions are sought from the members repeatedly so as to develop a best solution to a given problem. The success of Delphi technique depends upon a simple technique of understanding the problem from the other mans perspective. This ensures success. Though it is a useful technique, since it involves time and cost,it can not be tried in all situations. At the operations level hundreds of de(isions are made in order to achieve local outcomes that contribute to the achievement of a companys overall strategic goal. However, all these decisions are interrelated and must be coordinated for the purpose of attaining the overall company goals. Many decisions-making situations occur under conditions of uncertainty. For example, the demand for a product may not be 100 units next week but may vary between 0 and 200 units, depending on the state of the market, which is uncertain. Decision analysis is a set of quantitative decision-making techniques to aid the decision maker in dealing with a decision situation in which there is uncertainty. However, the usefulness of decision analysis for decision making is also a beneficial topic to study because it reflects a structured, systematic approach to decision making that many decision makers follow intuitively without ever consciously thinking about it. Decision analysis represents not only a collection of decision-making techniques but also an analysis of logic underlying decision making. The general process of the Delphi technique follows: A panel of people who are knowledgeable about a particular problem is selected. The members of the group never actually meet. The panel can have members both inside and outside the organization, and the individual members may or may not know who the other members are. A questionnaire about the problem to be solved is sent to each members of the panel. Each person is asked to make anonymous suggestions. These suggestions are pooled, and a feedback report is developed. The feedback report and a more advanced, second stage questionnaire are sent back to the panel members. Each panel member independently evaluates the feedback report, votes on the priority of the ideas contained in it, and generates new ideas based on it. The process is repeated until a consensus is reached or until the manager feels that sufficient information has been received to make a decision. A final summary feedback report is developed and set back to the group members. A major advantage of the Delphi approach is its anonymity. In groups that interact face-to-face, one person may dominate, or everyone may watch the manager for clues to what is wanted. Further is interacting groups and individual may take a stand and not want to back down for fear of losing face. Frequently experts are more concerned with defending their position than with reaching a good decision. Electronic meetings: The most recent approach to group decision making blends the nominal group technique with sophisticated computer technology. Its called the electronic meeting. The major advantages of electronic meetings are anonymity, honestly and speed. Participants can anonymously type any message they want and it flashes on the screen for all to see at the push of a participants board key. It also allows people to be brutally honest without penalty. And its fast because chitchat is eliminated, discussions dont digress and many participants can talk at once without stepping on one anothers toes. Experts claim that electronic meetings are as much as fifty five percent faster than traditional face to face meetings. Phelps Dodge Mining for instance, used the approach to cut its annual planning meeting from several days down to twelve hours. Yet there are drawbacks to this technique. Those who can type fast can outshine those who are verbally eloquent but lousy typists, those with the best ideas dont get credit for them, and the process lacks the information richness of face to face-to-face oral communication. But although this technology is currently in its infancy, the future of group decision making is very likely to include extensive use of electronic meetings. Decision making without probabilities:- A decision making situation includes several components, the decision themselves and events that may occur in the future, known as states of nature. Future states of nature may be high or low demand for a product or good or bad economic conditions. At the time a decision is made, the decision maker is uncertain which state of nature will occur in the future and has no control over these states of nature. When the probabilities can be assigned to the occurrence of states of nature in the future, the situation is referred to as decision making under risk. When probabilities cannot be assigned to the occurrence of future events, the situation is called decision making under uncertainty. Each decision will result in an outcome or payoff, for each state of nature that will occur in the future. Payoffs are typically expressed in terms of profit, revenues, or cost. For example, if decision 1 is to expand a production facility and state of nature a is good economic conditions, payoff la could b e $100,000 in profit. Once the decision situation has been organized into a payoff table, several criteria are available to reflect how the decision maker arrives at a decision, including maximax, maximin, minimax regret, Hurwicz, and equal likelyhood. These criteria reflect different degrees of decision-maker conservatism or liberalism. On occasion they result in the same decision; however, they often yield different results. Different decision criteria often result in a mix of decisions. The criteria used and the resulting decisions depend on the decision maker. For example, the extremely optimistic decision maker might disregard the preceding results and make the decision to maintain the status quo, because the maximax criterion reflects his or her personal decision-making philosophy.

The correlation between waste management strategies in onshore oil and gas operations and the overall environmental responsibilities of oil companies The WritePass Journal

The correlation between waste management strategies in onshore oil and gas operations and the overall environmental responsibilities of oil companies Problem Statement and Research Objective The correlation between waste management strategies in onshore oil and gas operations and the overall environmental responsibilities of oil companies ]. HM Government. (1994) Sustainable Development: The UK Strategy, London, HMSO. IPCC. (2007) Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, [Online] Available: ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/main.html [12 February, 2013]. Pongracz, E. Phillips, P. S. and Keiski, R. L. (2004) Evolving the Theory of Waste Management – Implications to Waste Minimisation, [Online] Available: www.oulu.fi/resopt/wasmin/pongracz5.pdf [15 February, 2013]. Sevilla, C. G. et al, (2007) Research Methods, Rex Bookstore. Philippine Copyright.

What effects does the glass ceiling have on women's career development Research Paper

What effects does the glass ceiling have on women's career development in law firms - Research Paper Example n inherent bias is indicated to exist due to the fact that even though women make up less than 10% of this industry, they are overly represented within the lower positions and a number of studies have indicated they are unlikely to be promoted throughout the course of their career; as compared to their male counterparts (Hoobler & Lemmon, 2009). Furthermore, the researcher denotes the existence of a glass cliff. Within this particular understanding and definition, a glass with merely denotes fact that women are unlikely to exist within levels of upper management and leadership as compared to their male counterparts (Wrigley, 2002). As such, whereas 10% of the total legal profession can be counted as female, a much lower percentage is able to break through the glass ceiling experiences hardship of coming into any type of position of leadership and/or power. Regardless of the factors discussed, it cannot be stated that the glass ceiling has not grown and evolved throughout the course o f the past several decades. Rather than being a static concept, this glass ceiling is redefined and re-engineered in almost every firm that it is extant within the current environment (Ragins et al., 2009). Furthermore, since it is not a static concept, many researchers argue that it is possible for the term to morph and change throughout time and within the organizations that are affected (Bruckmuller & Branscombe, 2011). Furthermore, although many changes have taken place, the glass ceiling and its traditional interpretation and implementation have remained largely unchanged. Rather than accepting its existence outright, the authors attempt to understand some of the causal mechanisms for why the glass ceiling exists and what individual employers and HR managers might do in order to...Naturally, the mere existence of such a â€Å"glass ceiling† portends a degree of sexism and bias with regards to the unwillingness of stakeholders within the employment field being willing and able to promote their female counterparts (Hogue, 2009). As a function of seeking to understand this dynamic, the following analysis will focus specifically on the field of the glass ceiling as it exists within law firms and the legal sphere. It should not be misunderstood by the reader that the glass ceiling is specific to the legal realm. Instead, a more nuanced and broad understanding of the glass ceiling within the legal field does not detract from the glass ceiling as it exists for other industries and professions; rather, it merely helps to underscore the fact that glass ceiling exists within many different professions and specialties. The gender representation within law offices around the country is recognizably skewed. Males outnumber females at a rate of nearly 10:1 in some states. This is an interesting topic as it is indicative of a more nationwide trend and less culturally dependent and/or bound than the ways that the glass ceiling might be exhibited within other secto rs of the economy (Bowling et al., 2006). Rather than accepting its existence outright, the authors attempt to understand some of the causal mechanisms for why the glass ceiling exists and what individual employers and HR managers might do in order to ameliorate its effects.

Some of the best buildings and structures in the world Essay

Some of the best buildings and structures in the world - Essay Example Over the years, several constructions have been added to the main building: the executive office (1902), the east wing (1942), a bomb shelter and penthouse (1952). The center of activity of the White House is the west wing with the oval office of the president and offices of the staff. The grounds of the building cover about 7 hectares and are embellished with gardens, lawns, trees and fountains (â€Å"White house,† 2012). The Shard London Bridge, which is also referred to as the Shard of Glass, London Bridge Tower, and the Shard, is a skyscraper situated next to London Bridge Station. The building is designed as a spire-like sculpture which rises from the Thames. Architectural style is Neo-Futurism. The Shard is the tallest building in the European Union. It has 87 floors and is 310 in height. In fact, it is 95 stories tall, and level 72 is the highest habitable floor. The architect of the Shard project decided that the spire-like form would suit the skyline of the city due to the fact that it recalls the church steeples. In the construction, about 11,000 panes of glass were used. Glass panes reflect the sky, and, consequently, the appearance of the building changes with the changes in the sky and weather. The Shard is used for multiples purposes, and, in accordance with its official website, it is created for people to live, work, and relax. There are offices, restaurants, hotel, residences and The View from The Shard, the highest viewing gallery in the United Kingdom are in the building (â€Å"The Shard,† 2014). Petronas Twin Towers are a pair of skyscraper buildings situated in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Petronas Towers are among the tallest buildings in the world, after Taipei 101 and Burj Khalifa. Architectural style is Postmodern. The towers were built to serve as a main office of the national petroleum company of the country, Petronas. The two towers are identical in their plan. Each of them is

Culture and Careers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Culture and Careers - Essay Example Thailand is one of the most popular countries to visit. In cultural terms, there are several practices and beliefs that are rather distinct and different from Western societies. The traditional Thai greeting ‘wai’ is expressed with the two palms pressed together in a prayer like way. Acknowledging a ‘wai’ and returning is expected of everyone. Thai culture lays a significant amount of spiritual importance to certain parts of the human body. It is said that one should avoid pointing his or her feet at people, or even touching people with the feet, propping up the feet on tables, or stepping on people seated on the ground. In comparison, the head has much more importance and it is well-thought-out to be very rude to touch other people on the head. As well, it is said that people should not sit pillows since they are meant resting the head (Jones, 2003). The major religion which is followed in Thailand is Buddhism which is majorly influenced by the traditional beliefs which are associated with the ancestral and natural spirits. The belief of having spirits is incorporated in their Buddhist cosmology. On the basis of this belief Thai people own spirit and miniature houses which they believe contain live spirits. They provide food and drinks to such spirits which they believe keep them happy. According to the Thai people beliefs and their culture if these spirits are not happy they will impede the major portion of the household and will create chaos. Such spirit houses are found in public places and also on some of the streets of Thailand. In certain rural areas of Thailand, food is served while people are seated on the ground. Stepping over food is considered yet another very rude gesture and a source of immense embarrassment for a Thai host. At practically any place in Thailand, if one sees a pile of shoes at or close to the entrance of a home, shop, or a guest house, one should remove their own

Journal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 29

Journal - Essay Example This bare feeling is enhanced by short, austere sentences which contrast the more extravagant role of a movie star. The syntax of this passage highlights the fact that despite of her being tough and practical, she still faces challenging circumstances, especially given that she feels betrayed by her husband due to the affair. The parallel structure and repetition which all begin with â€Å"She† stresses her despair, loneliness, pain and suffering as the two people she considers important to her life are not there for her. By placing â€Å"Try to smile proudly† in its own paragraph, Moore emphasizes the importance of her to rise above her present predicament and focus on the opportunity she has, and this establishes her as the primary focus of the story, as the paragraph marks the transition from her description of the babysitting jobs so as to compare it with being a child psychologists. â€Å"Why write? Where does writing come from? These are questions to ask you. They are like: Where does dust come from? Or Why is there war? Or: If there’s a God, then why is my brother now a cripple?† (1019). The purpose of these rhetorical questions is not to obtain a response, but to assert the implicitly. They serve the subtle means of insinuating the notion of why the author wants the readers to be writers, and which might be challenged by the readers when asserted directly. â€Å"†¦it will be about monomania and the fish-eat-fish world of life insurance in Rochester, New York. The first line will be â€Å"Call me Fishmeal† and it will feature a menopausal suburban husband named Richard, who because he is so depressed all the times is called â€Å"Mopey Dick† by his witty wife†¦Lets go out and get a big beer†(1019). This passage underscores Moore’s sense of humor and it accentuates some chilling, private revelations that give rise

Victimology Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Victimology - Coursework Example The occurrence of such violence is attributable to bitterness towards the old, retaliatory attacks by younger adults, insufficient love and friendliness and general social plight. Reportedly, abusers are relations of the elderly individual who are supposedly caregivers. CVS (2011) reports several incidences of elder abuse. For instance, the year 2007 there were over 91590 individuals above the age of 65 who experienced violent misdemeanor. Of all police crime reporting rate across the various age groups, the age group of 65 five and above had 61% of the total crime reports in the year 2007. This is indicative of the increased crime across this age group. Reportedly, the same year witnessed individuals above the age of 65 lose a massive 1.3 billion dollars in terms of individual and possessions crimes. People aged 60 and constituted 8% of the total deceptive crime reported to the federal trade commission in the year 2008 (CVS, 2011). Consequently, about 12% of identity theft victims reported to the institution was age 60 years and above (CVS, 2011). This is indicative of the increasing criminal activity directed towards this age. According to CVS (2011), five ways to of preventing elder abuse includes individual awareness of the persistence of the problem and its causative factors. The elderly person should make the concerned authorities aware of the quandary. Secondly, one must plan a head to establish caregivers preparedness in terms of financial, physical, and psychological resources. One should arrange for an alternate care to take charge in the event of failure by the preliminary plan. The elders are encouraged to stay sociable by participating in communal activities and sustaining a well established association of friends. Lastly, one should obey the scheduled medical care and other many social engagements (CVS). CVS (2011) outlines several ways of identifying elder

Working with young children from 16 to 36 months Essay

Working with young children from 16 to 36 months - Essay Example You may choose to include photographs, observations and evidence of activities carried out (to include one out of the setting context). Your portfolio should be well supported by theory and your own critical reflections. Present and communicate complex information and ideas verbally and in written form, using specialist vocabulary where appropriate.? Critically identify, assess, select and use information from a wide range of sources. Materials from the portfolio and the reflective report can be used in the validation process. 4,000- 5,000 words (100% weighting) Rationale This module will consider current research and pedagogical approaches when working with young children, and what those who work with children need to know about theory, research and practice. It will consider the development of policies in providing for the youngest children in the UK in recent times. In the context of the rapid changes in the field of early childhood education and care, this module will critically discuss the complex policy context in the UK. It will attempt to provide an overview of the recent history of policy development, considering the impact of Every Child Matters, The Early Years Foundation Stage and the developing role of the Early Years Professionals. Key aspects of practice will be explored in the light of this discussion. This module aims to enable students to: Apply critical, analytical skills to approaches of early childhood ?pedagogy. Synthesise the theory and practice of working with young children. Gain knowledge and understanding of current initiatives and their ?effect on early childhood education and care. Develop critically reflective and questioning perspectives on how ?young children develop and learn and the role of the adult. Recognise processes which improve quality of provision. Understand the role of an early years team. ?The distinctive features of the module are to provide an overview of theoretical underpinnings of early childhood practice with t he youngest children and to examine research studies in to the learning and development of children from 16 to 36 months. The emphasis of the module is concerned with linking theoretical aspects with the experience acquired in placement and ways in which high quality provision can be offered to young children to support development and learning. Learning Outcomes Demonstratebreadthanddepthofawarenessandunderstandingofthe expected patterns of children’s physical, cognitive, linguistic, social, emotional and behavioural development from 16-36 months. Demonstrate the ability to identify how to use everyday care routines, play and planned learning activities to promote children’s well-being, development and learning, and knowing how to critically evaluate and adapt them to meet children’s varied needs. Demonstrateabreadthanddepthofknowledgeandunderstandingof current legal requirements, national policies and guidance on health and safety and their implications for ea rly years settings. Intellectual skills: 4. Coherently collate, critically evaluate and analyse evidence about effective practice and use it to improve their own and others practice. 5. Engage with complex theory, new concepts and evidence from a range of sources associated with early childhood development and apply it to the learning process. Transferrable Skills: 8. Present and communicate complex information and ideas verbally and in written form, using specialist vocabulary where appropriate.? 9. Critically identify, assess, select and use information from a wide range of sources. Essay Task Portfolio –

Journal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 29

Journal - Essay Example This bare feeling is enhanced by short, austere sentences which contrast the more extravagant role of a movie star. The syntax of this passage highlights the fact that despite of her being tough and practical, she still faces challenging circumstances, especially given that she feels betrayed by her husband due to the affair. The parallel structure and repetition which all begin with â€Å"She† stresses her despair, loneliness, pain and suffering as the two people she considers important to her life are not there for her. By placing â€Å"Try to smile proudly† in its own paragraph, Moore emphasizes the importance of her to rise above her present predicament and focus on the opportunity she has, and this establishes her as the primary focus of the story, as the paragraph marks the transition from her description of the babysitting jobs so as to compare it with being a child psychologists. â€Å"Why write? Where does writing come from? These are questions to ask you. They are like: Where does dust come from? Or Why is there war? Or: If there’s a God, then why is my brother now a cripple?† (1019). The purpose of these rhetorical questions is not to obtain a response, but to assert the implicitly. They serve the subtle means of insinuating the notion of why the author wants the readers to be writers, and which might be challenged by the readers when asserted directly. â€Å"†¦it will be about monomania and the fish-eat-fish world of life insurance in Rochester, New York. The first line will be â€Å"Call me Fishmeal† and it will feature a menopausal suburban husband named Richard, who because he is so depressed all the times is called â€Å"Mopey Dick† by his witty wife†¦Lets go out and get a big beer†(1019). This passage underscores Moore’s sense of humor and it accentuates some chilling, private revelations that give rise

Working with young children from 16 to 36 months Essay

Working with young children from 16 to 36 months - Essay Example You may choose to include photographs, observations and evidence of activities carried out (to include one out of the setting context). Your portfolio should be well supported by theory and your own critical reflections. Present and communicate complex information and ideas verbally and in written form, using specialist vocabulary where appropriate.? Critically identify, assess, select and use information from a wide range of sources. Materials from the portfolio and the reflective report can be used in the validation process. 4,000- 5,000 words (100% weighting) Rationale This module will consider current research and pedagogical approaches when working with young children, and what those who work with children need to know about theory, research and practice. It will consider the development of policies in providing for the youngest children in the UK in recent times. In the context of the rapid changes in the field of early childhood education and care, this module will critically discuss the complex policy context in the UK. It will attempt to provide an overview of the recent history of policy development, considering the impact of Every Child Matters, The Early Years Foundation Stage and the developing role of the Early Years Professionals. Key aspects of practice will be explored in the light of this discussion. This module aims to enable students to: Apply critical, analytical skills to approaches of early childhood ?pedagogy. Synthesise the theory and practice of working with young children. Gain knowledge and understanding of current initiatives and their ?effect on early childhood education and care. Develop critically reflective and questioning perspectives on how ?young children develop and learn and the role of the adult. Recognise processes which improve quality of provision. Understand the role of an early years team. ?The distinctive features of the module are to provide an overview of theoretical underpinnings of early childhood practice with t he youngest children and to examine research studies in to the learning and development of children from 16 to 36 months. The emphasis of the module is concerned with linking theoretical aspects with the experience acquired in placement and ways in which high quality provision can be offered to young children to support development and learning. Learning Outcomes Demonstratebreadthanddepthofawarenessandunderstandingofthe expected patterns of children’s physical, cognitive, linguistic, social, emotional and behavioural development from 16-36 months. Demonstrate the ability to identify how to use everyday care routines, play and planned learning activities to promote children’s well-being, development and learning, and knowing how to critically evaluate and adapt them to meet children’s varied needs. Demonstrateabreadthanddepthofknowledgeandunderstandingof current legal requirements, national policies and guidance on health and safety and their implications for ea rly years settings. Intellectual skills: 4. Coherently collate, critically evaluate and analyse evidence about effective practice and use it to improve their own and others practice. 5. Engage with complex theory, new concepts and evidence from a range of sources associated with early childhood development and apply it to the learning process. Transferrable Skills: 8. Present and communicate complex information and ideas verbally and in written form, using specialist vocabulary where appropriate.? 9. Critically identify, assess, select and use information from a wide range of sources. Essay Task Portfolio –

Inaugural Speech Rhetorical Analysis Essay Example for Free

Inaugural Speech Rhetorical Analysis Essay John F. Kennedy’s inaugural speech is certainly one to remember. It’s memorable not for its length, but for the effective content that it beholds. He entices readers by the use of strong rhetoric techniques. His inaugural analyzes style of writing, such as diction, tropes, schemes, and syntax, and applies the concept of it effectively throughout the speech. A reader performs rhetorical analysis to examine how authors attempt to persuade their audiences by looking at the various components that make up the art of persuasion. Moreover, it is most essential to be able to understand the relationship among the speaker, subject, and audience, which President Kennedy adequately exploits in his speech. It is a necessity to be able to identify the speaker, subject, and audience in a piece of writing, such as John F. Kennedy’s inaugural speech. The ethical appeal, instead refers to the credibility, character, and confidence of a writer. There are a number of ways in which an author may establish ethical appeal. During the time period in which it was written, cold war tensions were still lingering the atmosphere and Kennedy had just won the position as president in a very close election over an accomplished opponent. Therefore, the nation is vulnerable and tense and has reached a turning point in history. The speaker would be classified as the narrator, which in this case is John F. Kennedy. Since he was elected president, the audience views him as an authoritative figure whose speech should be respected. Although Kennedy was young, he still faced critique on his tone and image, whether that be physical or mental. His speech was not aimed toward any particular individual, it was written for the world. So, it was expected of him to exhibit hope, compassion, strength, and loyalty. The speaker, subject, and audience all depend on each other in a piece of work because without them, it would be difficult to identify what the writing is talking about and who would be affected by it. Within President Kennedy’s speech, he utilizes various rhetorical strategies, including diction, tropes, syntax, and schemes, which make it more effective and versatile. For instance, parallelism such as the statement, â€Å"whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, hear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe,† gives flavor to the speech by pointing out opposite words within a single sentence but still making it work. A few antimetaboles are used in the speech, such as â€Å"let us never negotiate out of fear. But let us never fear to negotiate† and â€Å"ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country,† make the speech more effective by twisting around the order of the words, or syntax, to get people to realize a point. Additionally, what makes Kennedy’s speech so effective is that he can transition from a simple sentence to a more complex, meaningful one in a matter of lines of the speech. In accordance to the diction, the words in his speech (freedom, poverty, devotion, and loyalty) are considered abstract. This is because they all convey a tone of desire and significant qualities held by friends. They strengthen and add more feeling to the speech as well. However, the archaic words, such as writ and forebears, are used in a manner to bring in the old language as well as the new, therefore there is sophistication as well as understanding. Kennedy also uses juxtaposition when he says, â€Å"peaceful revolution,† and this adds spice to the speech because of the contradiction of the two powerful words. Yet another effective rhetoric strategy that he uses is hortative sentences, such as ones using the phrase â€Å"let us† or â€Å"let both sides†, which urges action and attention to the audience the speaker is writing to. Clearly John F. Kennedy has made remarkable use of various rhetorical strategies throughout his inaugural speech, which in turn allows one to develop a superb rhetorical analysis with the different components of the text. His speech is an effective piece of writing because of its style, diction, syntax, tropes, and schemes. Additionally, it all goes back to the understood relationship between speaker, audience, and subject as well as the classical appeals.

The Extent and Causes of Tax Evasion in Pakistan

The Extent and Causes of Tax Evasion in Pakistan Molar and woodland (2004) investigated the efficiency of tax through tax optimality index. In their paper they measured the difference between the current tax structure and an optimal tax structure. They used the methodology was based on a small open economy and they constructed an equation on economys equilibrium to construct their tax optimality index including public goods. The model used to calculate the total optimality index had four variables three private and one public good. The tax optimality index came out to be 0.7972 which showed that the taxes where 79.7% efficient compared to the optimal tax index. The advantages of the tax were that it immediately told how efficient where the current taxes of a country with reference to an optimal model. Kemal (2007) discussed the extent of underground economy and tax evasion in Pakistan. He analyzed the main causes of increase in underground economy citing reasons such as intensity of regulations burden of tax and social transfers etc. The methodology he used was that he collected many micro and macro variables such as total number of bank deposits, interest rates, GDP, GNP, inflation etc in order to construct his equations to measure the extent of increase in underground economy. Years were ranging from 1973 to 2003. The equation developed was a regression equation, first legal money is calculated, and after that velocity of money is calculated by dividing the national income with legal money, lastly multiplying the velocity of money with illegal money gives the underground economy. Multiplying underground economy with total tax to GDP ratio gives tax evasion. Empirical results showed that both the size of underground economy and tax evasion increased significantly during these years. The increase was most predominant in 1990s. He also concluded that raise in underground economy poses many problems for policy makers. He also concluded that had there been no tax evasion budget balance could have been positive. Aslam (1998) measured the size of underground economy and tax evasion in Pakistan. His paper used Tanzis methodology with few changes made to the model. The range of the years was from 1960 to 1998. The modified model was of log to log specification with demand of currency assumed to me the main determinant of tax rate. The paper reinforced the presence of a large underground economy and huge tax evasion in Pakistan. Results showed the variation in underground economy is very sensitive and has significant impact on GDP. Further it showed that the Dollarization of economy is major problem because of significant involvement of underground foreign exchange. The limitation of this paper was that this paper could not be concluded as completely accurate and it does not tell about a remedy plan. Jayasinghe (2007) evaluated the components and sources of tax gap in Pakistan. Presence of significant tax gap forces a country to impose higher marginal tax rates of tax payers in order to collect additional revenue required to overcome a potential budget deficit. The model assumes that tax evasion in the economy is represented by a fully established hidden economy. Tax evasion is estimated through estimating the size of shadow economy through 1984-2004. A regression analysis is conducted in two specifications for comparisons. One specification is run by using total values of GDP while the other using per capita values for GDP. The size of the shadow economy estimated through both specifications, GDP and per capita GDP show an increasing trend. Results showed that size of underground economy has increased from 23% to 84% till 2004. Increasing trend in underground economy is followed by an increasing tax gap. Lastly, the paper argues that the source of declining government, revenue is growing tax gap. Hibbs and Piculescu (2005) proposed a model of how taxation and government regulations affect the productivity of private institution. The model proposed considers private firm with fixed capital (K) and variable labor requirements: Lo, labor in official while Lu labor employed in unofficial production. Wage is identical at (w) but wage cost varies: regarding the public sector, it is demand as potentially corruptible and markets for corruption would arise giving firms opportunity for evading taxes. The model also assumes that incentive to evade taxation depend on statuary tax rates. Regression equation is developed and regression tests are run to arrive at the conclusion. Empirical results in this paper are that markets for corruption arise due to perception of figures taxes as not worth paying. Dependency on how many and to what extent firms within a country have incentive to produce underground economy and evade taxation policies regarding taxation and employment conditions of enforcement bureaucrats may create tradeoffs between containment of tax evasion and overall level of economic activity. Goerke (2003) investigated the relationship between tax progressivity and the tax evasion. In this paper, the consequences of tax evasion upon employment opportunities are investigated. It relates that an increase in tax progressivity has no employment effect in the absence of evasion opportunities. The model has a fixed number of workers whose only source of income are wages (w) and who can evade income taxes a regression test is run and conclusion are drawn. The results are that employment effects more of progressive taxes in an efficiency wage economy has no employment consequences in the absence of tax evasion. The analysis has presumed a constant level of statuary tax payments at the initial wage level. Niepelt (2003) explored the dynamic of tax evasion. He analyzed the dynamics of tax evasion using a model in a continuous time. He developed an equation using the model and his assumptions based on the households in that model. The conclusion drawn in his paper is that risk aversion and endogenous detection probability play a central role in static theories of tax evasion. It concludes that in the presence of tax evasion, the statuary tax rate is an important policy instrument but an unpredictable indicator of the effective stance of fiscal policy. Ahmed and Ahmed (1995) estimated the extent and level of black economy in Pakistan through monetary approach. Researchers have termed the underground economy in various names such as (i) illegal economy (ii) unreported economy (iii) unrecorded economy (iv) informal economy. The method adopted for quantification of the black economy is that of Tanzi, with some modifications. The equation is of double Log specification. Tax GDP ratio sign is positive. Relationship between interest rate on time deposits and currency ratio is said to be negative. After estimation of equations through least square method results are obtained. It has been found that the black economy as a percentage of GDP has shown a fluctuating trend. Black economy and level of tax evasion have increased over the number of years, but black economy as a percentage of GDP has experienced a decline. The sizeable magnitude loss of revenue indicates that substantial revenue can be realized by reducing the extent of tax evasion in the economy. Crane and Nourzad (1985) analyzed the effect of inflation on aggregate tax evasion in the US over the period of 1947- 81. The methodology used is to construct an equation using major determination of evasion. The major determinants are derived with the following implicit evasion function Z= f(O, f, TR, V, P). Z is a measure of tax evasion, D is probability of detection, F is fine rate, TR is tax rate, Y is real true income and P is inflation rate. The equation derived comes out to be a logarithmic equation in Z. the most difficult variables to quantify is dependent variable itself, Z, measuring tax evasion. Probability of detection an independent variable is measure using moving averages over the period of 2 years. Tax rate is calculated using weighted average marginal tax rate. Inflation is calculated using CPI. Empirical results show that aggregate income tax evasion in both absolute and relative taxes is positively related to inflation rate. Aggregate evasion is risen in absolute terms but has fallen in relative terms when real true income has risen.